![]() ![]() Mittelbach GG, Chesson PL (1987) Predation risk: indirect effects on fish populations. Milinski M, Heller R (1978) Influence of a predator on the optimal foraging behavior of sticklebacks ( Gasterosteus aculeatus L.). Lorman JG, Magnuson JJ (1978) The role of crayfish in aquatic ecosystems. Lendrem DW (1983) Predation risk and vigilance in the blue tit ( Parus caeruleus) Behav Ecol Sociobiol 14:9–13 Holmes WG (1984) Predation risk and foraging behavior of the hoary marmot in Alaska. Am Nat 110:247–259ĭiamant A, Shpigel M (1985) Interspecific feeding associations of groupers (Teleostei: Serranidae) with octopuses and moray eels in the Gulf of Eilat (Aqaba) Env Biol Fish 13:153–159ĭill LM, Fraser AHG (1984) Risk of predation and the feeding behavior of juvenile coho salmon ( Oncorhynchus kisutch). Oecologia (Berlin) 66:168–177Ĭharnov EL, Orians GH, Hyatt K (1976) Ecological implications of resource depression. Thus predators, throught intimidation, can influence prey behavior even though the predators are no longer present.īutler MJ IV, Stein RA (1985) An analysis of the mechanisms governing species replacement in crayfish. After a 30-min exposure to bass, darters showed reduced activity and increased shelter use lasting at least 24 h after the bass was removed. Intimidation effects of bass on darters last for some time. Conversely, bass increased the vulnerability of small fish to crayfish by forcing these fish to seek cover under shelters occupied by crayfish. Thus, crayfish increased the vulnerability of small fish to bass by evicting them from shelters and causing increased activity. Also, darters were often evicted from shelters by intruding crayfish. Darters, normally inactive in the presence of bass, were often forced to move by approaching crayfish and thus activity increased to 19% of control rates. When both crayfish and bass were present, an interaction occurred. When only crayfish were present, darter activity and shelter-use were similar to controls. When only smallmouth bass were present, darters reduced activity to 6% of control rates and spent most of the time hiding under tile shelters. Predator-prey interactions were studied among a small prey fish (the johnny darter Etheostoma nigrum) and two predators (crayfish Orconectes rusticus and smallmouth bass Micropterus dolomieui) with complementary foraging behaviors. ![]()
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